Wednesday, November 17, 2010

Leaveners in Baking and Pastry

Leaveners produce a desirable texture by introducing a gas which is carbon dioxide, into the batter or dough by one of the three means - chemical, organic or physical.

Chemical Leaveners

Baking soda and baking powder are the primary chemical leaveners. In these leaveners, an alkaline ingredient (baking soda or baking powder) interacts with an acid (already present in baking powder, or an ingredient such as buttermilk, sour cream, yogurt, or chocolate). The alkalis and acids produce a gas, which is carbon dioxide, when combined in the batter. As the item is baked, this gas expands, giving the baked goods their characteristic texture, known as "crumb". This process of expansion happens rapidly; hence, many items prepared with chemical leaveners are called "quick breads".

Double-acting baking powder got its name because a first action occurs in the presence of moisture in the batter and a second action is initiated by the presence of heat. That is, it reacts once when it is mixed with the batter's liquids and again when the batter is placed in a hot oven.

Organic Leaveners

Organic leaveners, are living organisms that feed on sugars present in flours or as added sweeteners, producing alcohol and carbon dioxide. Unlike chemical leaveners, organic leaveners take a substantial amount of time to do their job. They have to grow and reproduce sufficiently to fill the dough with air pockets.

Yeast and sourdoughs are organic leaveners, which means that they must be "alive" in order to be effective. Organic leaveners can be killed by overly high temperatures and, conversely, cold temperatures can inhibit their action. The temperature of the dough and its environment must be controlled carefully. Yeast will not function well below approximately 65 to 70^oF (18 to 21^oC) , and above 110^oF (43^oC) yeast is destroyed.

Two types of yeast are used in the professional bakery. The dry (or granulated) yeast and fresh (compressed) yeast. Dry yeast, in bulk or packets, should be refrigerated. It will keep for several months, which makes it suitable for kitchens that only occasionally make their own bread. Fresh yeast, on the other hand, is quite perishable and can be held under refrigeration for only 7 to 10 days. It may be frozen for longer storage but should be allowed to return to room temperature before it is used.

Physical Leaveners

The basic physical leavener is steam, which is produced when liquids in a batter or dough are heated. This causes the air pockets to expand. Steam leavening is critical in sponge cakes and souffles. It also plays a vital role in the production of puff pastry, croissant and Danish. In these products, the steam is trapped, causing the layers to separate and rise.

How to make a fish broth

A classic fish broth is made by gently simmering fish heads and bones in white wine and water with onions and a bouquet garni. Like other broths, fish broth can be made with uncooked bones for a light-colored and flavored effect, or with bones that are first browned for a richer flavor. Lean non oily fish such as flatfish, sea bass, striped bass and snapper make good all-purpose white fish broths for use in sauces, braised fish dishes and paellas. For a full-bodied brown fish broth such as the one used for bouillabaisse, brown the bones and vegetables before adding water so that their juices caramelize to give the broth a deep and rich flavor.

A red-wine fish broth such as the one used to make Snapper Baked with Red-Wine Fish Broth is made with the browned bones of an oilier fish like salmon which has too strong a flavor for a classic broth. This broth is made with red wine instead of water and white wine. Carrots add flavor and sweetness to red-wine fish broth but are rarely used in a classic white fish broth.

A classic fish broth is made by simmering the bones and heads, called frames by professionals; from filleted fish with sliced onions, a bouquet garni, a little white wine and water. Fish broth should not be simmered for more than 30 minutes, or it will develop too strong a flavor.

Steps to make a fish broth -

Remove any guts from the fish's rib cage.
Remove the gills.
Snap the fish's spine in a couple of places by bending it. Soak the fish bones and heads in cold water for a couple of hours. Leave the bowl in the refrigerator or add ice and change the water every 30 minutes.
Combine the drained fish heads and bones in a pot with a bouquet garni, sliced onion, and enough water to barely cover.
Pour in a small amount of wine. Simmer for 20 to 30 minutes.
Strain.

Making a Bouquet Garni

A bouquet garni is a bundle or packet of herbs that is added to broths, stews and soups to give them a subtle herbal flavor and aroma. A classic French bouquet garni contains parsley (it is more economical to use just stems if you can use the leaves for something else), thyme, and bay leaves, but in different regions and different countries, other herbs are sometimes used.

In the south of France, for example, flavorful ingredients such as dried orange peel are sometimes included. Most American cookbooks suggest tying the herbs in a packet of cheesecloth. This is useful when you're using dried herbs off the stem, but if your herbs - dried or flesh - are still on the stem, it's far easier just to tie the herbs together with string. Remember also that the size of a bouquet garni is determined by the amount of liquid it will be simmered in.

Making Breads

Perhaps the most essential of all foods, bread is extremely gratifying to make and to eat. The basic ingredients of flour, water, salt and yeast can yield an enormous variety of loaves with a huge range of flavors, textures, and shapes. Bread has a reputation for being time consuming and difficult to make, but almost anyone can make a satisfying loaf. In fact, the actual hands-on time spent making bread is less than the average prep time for a meal.

To knead yeast dough - pulling and stretching dough helps develop its gluten and incorporate air, both necessary for the chewy texture and proper rise of good yeast bread. Don't be too gentle during initial kneading. The harder you work dough, the better the gluten develops.

Place your hands side by side on the dough and press firmly down with the heels, flattening the dough to about 1/2 inch thick. With your hands still side by side, grasp the far end of the dough and fold it back on itself, flattening again. Rotate the dough 1/4 turn and repeat. Continue kneading and rotating until the dough feels elastic, pliable and somewhat sticky.

To clean sticky scraps of dough from a work surface, scrape off with a plastic or metal pastry bench knife. Or use warm water and a woven mesh scrubbie. Avoid hot water, which "cooks" the dough and leaves a sticky mess. Also avoid using a sponge, which will quickly become clogged with dough.

Making Coconut Milk

It is the milky liquid extracted from the grated flesh of mature fresh coconuts or reconstituted from desiccated coconut (dried shredded coconut) and not the clear liquid inside a coconut. Coconut milk is an important ingredient in the cookery of nearly all Asian countries. It is used in soups, curries, savory meat or fish mixtures and all kinds of desserts. It has an unmistakable flavor and richness and should be used in recipes that call for it. This should present not difficulty, for even in countries where fresh coconuts are not available, it is simple to make.

Before cooking, it is strongly recommended that you make all the coconut milk required so that you're not stopped in your tracks in the middle of a recipe. Coconut milk is extracted in two stages. The first yield being the 'thick milk', the second ' thin milk'. Use a mixture of first and second extracts when a recipe calls for coconut milk unless thick milk or thin milk is specified. Sometimes they are added at different stages of the recipe. In some recipes, you use 'coconut cream'. This is the rich layer that rises to the top of the thick milk (or first extract) after it has been left to stand for a while.

Using desiccated coconut : Many cooks use desiccated coconut for making milk. It is much easier and quicker to prepare than grating fresh coconut, and n curries you cannot tell the difference. Put 2 cups desiccated coconut in a large bowl and pour over 2 1/2 cups hot water. Allow to cool to lukewarm, then knead firmly with the hand for a few minutes and strain through a fine strainer or a piece of muslin, squeezing out as much liquid as possible. This should produce approximately 1 1/2 cups thick coconut milk.

Repeat the process using the same coconut and 2 1/2 cups more hot water. This extract will yield approximately 2 cups of thin coconut milk.

Using a blender : With an electric blender you save time and a lot of hard work. Put 2 cups desiccated coconut and 2 1/2 cups of hot water in blender container, cover and blend for about 30 seconds. Strain through a fine sieve or piece of muslin, squeezing out all the moisture. Repeat the process using the same coconut and 2 1/2 cups more of hot water.

Sometimes a richer milk is required. For this, hot milk replaces the water and only the first extract is used. However, a second extract will yield a flavorful and reasonably rich grade of coconut milk that can be used in soups, curries or other dishes.

Using fresh coconut : In Asian countries, fresh coconut is used and a coconut grater is standard equipment in every household. Grating fresh coconut is easy if you have the right implement for the job. There are various types of coconut graters; the most successful one and the easiest to use, screws on to the edge of a table, like a mincing machine. It has a number of curved, serrated blades that meet at a central point like a citrus juice extractor. By turning the handle with one hand and holding a half coconut in the other position with the other, it is possible to grate all the white flesh with no danger of slipping knives or skinned knuckles.

However, if you are able to get fresh coconuts and do not have this sort of implement, use the electric blender both to pulverize the coconut and to extract the milk First. crack the nut in two by hitting it with the back of a heavy kitchen chopper on the middle of the nut. Once a crack has appeared, insert the thin edge of the blade and praise it open. Save the sweet clear liquid inside for drinking. Put the two halves of the nut into a low oven and in 15 or 20 minutes, the flesh will start to come away from the shell. Lift it out with the point of a knife and peel away the thin dark brown skin that clings to the while portion. Cut into chunks, put into container of electric blender with 2 cups mild or water and blend at high speed until coconut is completely pulverized. Strain out liquid, repeat using more water and the same coconut.

To extract fresh coconut milk by hand, grate the pieces of white meat finely and to each cup of grated coconut add a cup of hot water, knead thoroughly and strain out the liquid. Repeat process a second and even a third time, adding hot water.

Making Fast Flatbread

Flatbreads bake in minutes. The dough need not be special because the crucial factors of making flatbread are how the loaf is rolled and the speed at which it bakes. To create the blistered surface and inflated pocket of a classic flatbread, roll the dough to no thicker than 1/4". At this thickness, most of the air bubbles in the dough are dispersed horizontally. When the flat loaf is laid on a hot surface, such as the floor of a preheated oven, or an inverted baking sheet, the bottom surface sets up instantly.

Air trapped in the dough expands, and all of the bubbles sitting side by side flow into one another, forming one big air pocket. The air pocket begins to grow, causing the still-flexible top of the loaf to separate from the bottom. This is the principle behind pita pockets.

Flatbread loaves are baked one or two at a time and then cooled and stacked. As they cool, the air pockets deflate and the breads become flat, but the pockets are still there, allowing each flatbread to be opened up into a vessel that can hold any number of fillings.

To make flatbread at home, divide 1 pound of bread dough into 4 equal portions and roll each portion into a ball. On a floured board, flatten the balls with your hands and roll with a rolling pin into flat rounds, approximately 8" in diameter and 1/8" thick. Place the flattened bread rounds on a lightly floured cloth. Cover this with another floured cloth and set in a warm spot to rest about 15 minutes. Meanwhile, preheat the oven to 500 degrees F. Place a baking sheet, upside down, in the oven and preheat for 5 minutes. Place one or two rounds at a time on the back of the hot, dry pan. Cook for 3 to 4 minutes.

The bread will swell in the middle and color lightly; do not overcook to reach a dark brown color. Remove from the oven and wrap in a clean cloth to keep moist. The swelling will disappear when the bread is removed from the oven. Continue with the remaining rounds.

Making Fresh Applesauce

If you've never made fresh applesauce at home, you should give it a try. It is really simple. Serve it alongside with roast pork or as a dessert served warm with vanilla ice cream. Applesauce is also a key ingredient for great-tasting, low-fat quick breads and muffins.

To make smooth and creamy applesauce - use a soft-textured apple, such as McIntosh. Add the sugar after the apples have softened, and pass the finished sauce through a food mill or sieve.
To make chunky applesauce - use a firm apple, such as Northern Spy or Granny Smith. Add the sugar at the beginning of the cooking time, and mash the finished sauce with a wooden spoon or a potato masher.
To tint applesauce pink - include apples with red skins, such as McIntosh or Cortland, and do not peel before cooking. Pass the cooked sauce through a food mill or a fine-mesh sieve to separate out the skins. The sauce will remain a lovely shade of pink. Or make apple-cranberry sauce by replacing some of the apples with cranberries (3 cups cranberries replaces 1 pound apples). Add 1/2 cup sugar to balance the tartness of the cranberries.

To flavor curried dish, add 1/2 cup applesauce to each 1 cup of curry sauce (or stock) when making a curried dish. Simmer as the recipe directs.

Spicy Applesauce

In a large saucepan, combine 1 cup apple cider, 1/4 cup sugar, 2 tablespoons lemon juice, 1 cinnamon stick and 5 whole cloves. Add 3 pounds peeled, cored and chopped McIntosh apples. Bring to a boil over high heat. Reduce heat to low and simmer for about 20 minutes. Taste for sweetness and add more sugar if desired. Simmer until desired thickness is reached. It will make about 8 cups.

Making Pie Crusts

The ingredient list is simple enough: flour, fat, salt and water. It's the handling of those ingredients that can make a pie crust tough and chewy or tender, flaky and rich with flavor. Don't be confused by terminology here. Pie pastry, pie dough, pie crust, and pie shell are all the same thing. Pastry refers to the uncooked pie dough. When it is formed and baked, it is called a pie crust (or shell).

To make a nicely browned pie crust, choose either a medium-heavy aluminum pan with sloping sides and a dull finish or a heatproof glass pie pan. Both will absorb heat and distribute it quickly, helping to set the crust. Avoid highly polished metal pans, which deflect rather than absorb heat. These pans bake more slowly and can interfere with the setting of the crust.

To roll pie pastry easily, roll the dough between 2 lightly floured sheets of waxed paper, parchment paper, or plastic wrap. The paper or plastic helps prevent adding too much flour, which can make for a tough pie crust. The paper also lets you move the dough more easily to the pie pan with less chances of tearing it. Remove the top sheet before moving the pastry.

When transferring rolled pastry to a pie pan, gently fold the circle into fourths. Center the 90-degree corner of the folded pastry in the pie pan. Unfold the pastry and gently fit it into the pan bottom to press out air bubbles without stretching the dough. You can also loosely roll the dough around the rolling pan, then slowly unfurl the dough over the pie pan, centering the dough as much as possible. Lift the dough gently by one edge to encourage it to conform to the bottom edge of the pan. Once the dough is lining the pan snugly, press across the bottom to make sure that there are no air bubbles trapped under the surface.

Avoid stretching or pulling the pastry as you lay it in the pie pan to prevent shrinking during baking. Pie pastry has a memory: if you stretch it to fit into a pan, it will shrink back to its original size and shape during baking.

When trimming pastry overhang, trim the perimeter of the pastry to extend no more than 1" over the edge of the pan. Fold this overhang under to make a thick pastry rim around the edge of the pan. If making a single-crust pie, crimp the edge before filling or storing. If making a double-crust pie, fill and roll out the top curst in the same way as the bottom, positioning it over the filling. Crimp the top and bottom crusts around their edges to seal.

Making Salads

There are some basic guidelines, but there are few rules for making a salad. Just about any ingredient you can think of can go into one: Eggs, meat, beans, grains, fruit, fish, nuts, bread, and pasta are all fine salad ingredients. Some salads include cooked ingredients; others are made up entirely of raw vegetables. Many are served chilled, but some are best at room temperature.

To make a green salad, always buy the freshest greens you can find. Look at the greens closely and take a small taste if you can. Pass by any that are wilted, overly bitter, limp, or browned. Remove the stems from small-leafed greens, such as watercress, arugula, or young spinach, but leave the leaves whole. Trim large-leaf greens, such as romaine or escarole, by tearing the leaves along the central rib. Make sure that all greens are completely dry. Excess water will prevent dressing from clinging to the leaves. Also, serve green salads immediately after dressing because the acid in the dressing will quickly wilt the leaves.

You can dry a large amount of greens by placing them in a clean pillowcase and swing the case in wide circles, like a propeller, to fling off excess water (you may need to do this outside). Wilting greens can be refreshed by placing them in ice water mixed with 2 tablespoons lemon juice and refrigerate for 1 hour. Drain well, wrap in toweling, and keep them bagged in the refrigerator for at least 4 hours.

Making Sauces for Sauteed Foods

The basic technique for making a sauce that incorporates the fond found in saute pans is to remove any excess fat or oils. Add aromatic ingredients or garnish items that need to be cooked, such as garlic, shallots, mushrooms, ginger and so forth. Then, deglaze the pan, releasing the reduced drippings from the pan. Wines, cognac, water or broths can be used for this step. Whatever liquid is added now is allowed to reduce. That means that fortified wines should be reserved until later, since their flavors are best when not allowed to reduce.

The base sauce is added at this point, along with any other ingredients as desired to add flavor, texture and color. Finishing ingredients such as cream, butter, purees or vegetables or herbs, or fortified wines are all appropriate.

In many cases, chefs opt to return the main item (a chicken breast or veal scallop, for example) to the finished sauce briefly. This glazes and coats the item, as well as reheats it very gently. The sauce may be ladled directly onto the plate, forming a pool; the sauteed item is placed on the sauce. Or, the sauce may be ladled over the food. Be sure that any stray spots or drips are carefully wiped from the plate using a clean cloth wrung out in hot water.

Making a Vinaigrette

A vinaigrette is a combination of oil and vinegar that is usually held together - emulsified - with mustard. Making a vinaigrette is much like making a mayonnaise, except that a vinaigrette contains no egg yolks. In fact, most of the time, when you make salads, it isn't necessary to make a vinaigrette - the oil, vinegar and seasoning can just be tossed with the greens. We generally think of a vinaigrette as a cold sauce for salads, but vinaigrettes, both cold and hot, make excellent sauces for meats, seafood and vegetables.

Making Vinaigrette

Combine mustard and vinegar in a bowl, and whisk together until smooth.
Slowly work in the oil. Extra virgin olive oil is used here, although the delicacy of finer oils is obscured by the mustard.

The type of vinegar and oil you choose depends on your taste. Using extra virgin oil for most vinaigrettes, but sometimes a tasteless oil, such as canola, is better for delicately flavored ingredients like carrots, the flavor of which might be overwhelmed by olive oil. Conversely, nut oils could also be used to sauce endive, curly chicory, cabbage and beets.

Standard proportions for vinaigrette are 1 part vinegar to 3 or 4 parts oil. It's important to taste as you go, because vinaigrettes are more or less acidic depending on what acid you choose. For example, balsamic vinegar is somewhat sweeter, so you'll probably want to use 1 part vinegar to 3 parts oil. Lemon juice on the other hand is very acidic, so you'll probably need more oil. The goal is a tangy, but not biting taste.

If using mustard in the vinaigrette, start with about half as much mustard as vinegar. Mustard vinaigrettes are delicious with bitter or strong-flavored ingredients, such as chilled cooked beets or leeks.

When making a hot vinaigrette, the proportions of oil to vinegar will change, depending on how much you reduce the vinegar, swirl in oil to taste.

How to melt chocolate to obtain optimum smoothness

Here's how to make a smooth transition from solid bars or chips to silky, warm chocolate liquid. Always try to use small pieces as the smaller the pieces, the faster the chocolate will melt. Use uniform-size pieces when possible. To ensure easy cleanup, coat the melting pan or bowl with oil before adding the chocolate.

Keep the heat low and gently. If body heat is enough to melt chocolate on your tongues, it won't take much heat on the stove. To keep chocolate from hardening and drying out during melting, heat it slowly over low heat, preferably indirect heat. The ideal method is to melt the chocolate in a double boiler over simmering water. If you don't have a double boiler, snugly fit a heatproof or stainless steel bowl into a saucepan of shallow water that's just barely simmering. This method works well for milk chocolate, white chocolate, or when melting chocolate and butter together. For dark chocolate, you can simply place it in a heatproof bowl and place the bowl in an oven set on the lowest setting until melted, about 8 to 10 minutes.

Beware even a drop of water. The smallest drop of water is enough to make warm, melted chocolate seize into a stiff mess. Make sure that bowls, spoons or pans used are really dry. If melting chocolate in a saucepan, leave off the lid to avoid steam condensing on the lid and dripping onto the chocolate. If you are using a bowl set over a pan and the bowl is smaller in diameter than the pan, wrap a towel around the bowl and tuck it into the pan edge to prevent steam from wafting up from the pan into the chocolate.

Try the microwave method. Chop any type of chocolate into small pieces (or use chips), place in a microwaveable container, and heat on medium power. 40 seconds for 1 ounce chocolate, 1 minute for 2 ounces, 2 minutes for up to 4 ounces, and 3 minutes for up to 8 ounces. Stop halfway through to stir the chocolate, which will not lose its shape and melt completely but will soften enough to be stirred into a smooth liquid. If melting chocolate and butter together, chop the butter into tablespoon size pieces and add during the last half of the cooking time.

Pull out the heating pan. Set a heating pad on high and place in a large bowl, preferably not metal. Put chocolate pieces into a smaller metal bowl and nestle the bowl into the heating pad. The chocolate will start to melt in about 10 minutes. Stir it briefly, then let sit until completely melted, another 5 minutes. To keep warm and melted for several hours (or if using for dipping), turn the heating pad to low.

To rescue seized chocolate. If your chocolate seizes up, blend in 1 1/2 tablespoons vegetable oil or solid shortening for every 4 ounces chocolate. Stir constantly, and your chocolate will regain its smooth texture.

Methods for Shallow Poaching

Assemble all ingredients and preparations for shallow poaching.
- Main ingredients
- Liquid
- Additional or optional items for flavoring, finishing and garnishing
- Items necessary to prepare the sauce
Items to be shallow poached should be naturally tender and of a size and shape that will allow them to cook in a short time. Remove the skin and bones from poultry. If preparing fish fillets, skin and bones should also be removed. As for shellfish, remove it from its shell, if desired.

The liquid should contribute flavor to the food as well as to the sauce prepared from the cooking liquid. Choose rich broths or stocks, and add wine, vinegar and/or citrus juice.

Cut shallots, garlic or ginger root finely or mince them. Other ingredients you wish to serve along with the sauce as a garnish should be cut neatly into strips, dice, julienne or chiffonade. These ingredients are often allowed to smother or par-cook in advance of shallow poaching the main item. This is done to develop the best possible flavor, as well as to make certain that all of the ingredients in the finished dish are fully cooked at the same time.
Assemble all equipments necessary for cooking and serving.
- Saute pan or other suitable cooking vessel
- Parchment or loose fitting lid
- Serving pieces as needed, strainers, whip, tongs, etc.
Select the pan or baking dishes carefully for shallow poached dishes. If there is too much space left around the food, then you will need to add a significant quantity of poaching liquid, This will have several adverse effects as it will make it easier to overcook the food. Sauce preparation will take longer, since you will have more liquid to reduce. Cooking speed can be more difficult to control properly too.

Parchment is generally used to loosely cover the pan as the food cooks. It traps enough of the steam to cook the unexposed part of the food, but not so much that the cooking speed increases. Maintaining a gently, low cooking temperature is the best way to produce the most delicious results.

Method

Add the ingredients to the pan. Although not always essential, a coating of butter is generally spread in an even layer in a cold pan or baking dish. Then, the aromatic ingredients (e.g. shallots, garlic, vegetables, herbs or mushrooms) are added in an even layer. They may be allowed to smother lightly in the butter at this point, or they may have been cooked separately. If they cook completely in the time required by the main item and the sauce preparation steps, they can be added raw.
Add the main item and the cooking liquid. Set the main item on top of the aromatics, and then pour in the liquid. It is not necessary in most cases to have the liquid already heated. For large items, it may be helpful, however. Be careful that it is not at a full boil. The liquid's level should be no higher than halfway up the item. Generally, less liquid is required. If too much is used, either a great deal of time will be needed for it to reduce properly or only part of it will be useable in the sauce. This is undesirable and could result in a loss of flavor in both the main item and the sauce.
Bring the liquid to a bare simmer over direct heat. The liquid is typically brought up to the correct cooking speed over direct heat. There may be some occasions when it is preferable to perform the entire cooking operation in the oven. The quantity of food being prepared and available equipment will dictate where it is most logically done. Do not allow the liquid to boil at any time. A rapid boil will cook the food too quickly, affecting the quality of the dish. Fish might easily break apart or poultry may toughen if they are not cooked at the correct temperature - never more than 170^oF (75^oC).
Lightly cover the saute pan with parchment paper and finish cooking the main item either over direct heat or in a moderate oven. Acceptable results can be achieved by finishing the cooking over direct heat. However, the heat in an oven, which is more even and gentle, is preferable. In addition, finishing shallow poaching in the oven makes burner space available for other purposes. Shallow poached foods should be cooked until they are just done.
Remove the main item to a holding dish. Moisten it with a small amount of the cooking liquid. Cover the item and keep it warm while completing the sauce.
Prepare a sauce from the cooking liquid.
Ladle the sauce over the food and serve it while still very hot.

Oven Temperature Guide

As cooking times often vary slightly depending on the type of oven used, it is advisable to check the manufacturer's instructions to ensure proper temperature control. When using convection ovens, the top of the food may cook too quickly. As a general rule, set the oven temperature 15^oC to 20^oC lower than the temperature indicated in the recipe, or refer to your oven manual.

	^oC	^oF	Gas Mark
Cool	100	200	1/4
Slow	150	300	2
Warm	170	325	3
Moderate	180	350	4
Moderate Hot	190	375	5
Hot	220	425	7
Very Hot	230	450	8

Steaming with a Pan

Pan steaming cooks foods by placing them directly in a liquid, such as water, broth or court bouillon. There is not enough water to completely submerge the food, however. This technique is often used to prepare vegetables.

The steps and methods for ingredients and equipment is similar to that required for shallow poaching, with the following difference - a tight fitting lid is essential in order to pan steam foods fully and quickly. Speed is one of this technique's most valuable assets, since even green vegetables can be prepared quickly enough that any acids that might have caused discoloration are not allowed enough time to have any effect.

The amount of liquid required is determined by the texture of the food being pan steamed. For denser foods, such as carrots or turnips, you may need more liquid. Delicate items, including new peas or asparagus tips, may require relatively little liquid.

Steps for pan steaming

Assemble all ingredients and preparations for pan steaming.
- Main ingredients
- Liquid
- Additional or optional items for flavoring, finishing and garnishing
- Items necessary to prepare the sauce
Since the liquid used in pan steaming is often discarded, water is the most ordinary choice. In pan steaming, the addition of aromatics, such as chopped shallots or additional minced vegetables is common. Once foods are pan steamed, the liquid may be drained away and a little cream or butter is added to finish the dish. This is an optional component.
Assemble all equipments necessary for cooking and serving.

Apart from the usual serving pieces, the only requirement for pan steaming is a sautoir or rondeau with a tight fitting lid. Remember that the food should be added to the pan in a single, even layer. It is important to select a pan that can comfortably hold the food being pan steamed without crowding.

Method

Bring the liquid to a boil in a pan. If you are adding any special aromatics, they should be added to the liquid as it comes to a boil so that they can release their flavors.
Add the food being pan steamed in a single layer. Some foods, such as peas, may be allowed to pile up in the pan but, in general, there should be only enough food added so that the liquid comes up about one-quarter to one-third of the depth of the food, with enough head room between the tip of the food and the lid to allow steam to build up.
Cover the pan and cook until the food is properly done.

Peanuts

We call them nuts and treat them like nuts, but peanuts are not nuts at all. They're legumes. Also called groundnuts, earthnuts, and goobers, peanuts seem as American as baseball. The most amazing thing happens when peanuts grow: They start out on a stem where a flower grew, but after the flower dies, the stem bends over, and as the peanut develops, it mysteriously buries itself in the earth. Mature peanuts are then dug up.

The two most common varieties of peanuts are small, round Spanish peanuts (often seen in peanut mixes) and larger, oval-shaped Virginia peanuts (often sold in the shell). When buying in-the-shell peanuts, look for clean shells with no breakage. Shake the peanuts and buy those that make no sound. If they rattle, the peanuts are old and beginning to dry out.

Unshelled and vacuum-packed shelled peanuts cab be kept at room temperature for a few weeks, but it's best to refrigerate them. Tightly wrap unshelled peanuts and keep in the refrigerator up to 6 months. Once they are opened, refrigerate vacuum-packed, shelled peanuts in the jar up to 3 months.

Peeling Vegetables

You may be most comfortable with a specific type of peeler and use it for all vegetables. But the trick to peeling quickly and with the minimum of waste is to use a variety of tools, depending on the fruit or vegetable you're peeling.

A swivel-type vegetable peeler is best for vegetables with thin, delicate skins, such as asparagus and carrots. A peeler with a fixed blade is better for vegetables with thick skins that require deeper peeling, such as celeriac, a paring knife works best, because it allows you to reach into the nooks and crannies below the surface of the peel.

Some vegetables, such as onions, tomatoes, bell peppers and chestnuts, require special peeling methods.

Kitchen Notes and Tips -

Each type of peeler is most effective used a specific way. A swivel-type peels with a back-and-forth movement, or by moving it away from you. Use non-swivel peelers by peeling toward yourself, as if you were using a knife.
Peel thin-skinned vegetables such as carrots and asparagus with a swivel-type peeler.
Peel thicker-skinned vegetables such as eggplant, turnips and potatoes with a non-swivel peeler.
String fennel and celery with either a peeler or a knife.
Peel very thick skinned vegetables such as celery root and winter squash with a knife.
A short plunge into boiling water will loosen the peels of onions and tomatoes and the inner peels of peeled chestnuts. This trick is especially handy for peeling pearl onions.
Many people don't think peeling asparagus is worth the bother, but peeled asparagus is easier to cook because the stalks cook in the same time as the florets - and you can eat the whole stalk if it's been peeled.

Peppercorns

The world's most popular spice, the pepper comes in shades of black, white and green. Regardless of their color, all peppercorns come from the same plant and are harvested while still green, then processed to yield the differences in color and flavor. Pink peppercorns aren't really peppercorns at all, but the berry of an unrelated tree.

No matter what color of peppercorn you're shopping for, always buy the largest peppercorns available. They have had the advantage of extra growing and ripening time, which gives them a fuller flavor. Also, buy whole peppercorns rather than preground pepper. The dusty, dull taste of preground pepper can't come close to the rich, full flavor of pepper that's ground fresh just moments before it is used.

The very best black peppercorns come from India's Malabar Coast and have a bold, fruity fragrance with none of the sharpness found in lesser-quality peppercorns. Look for the top grade of Malabar peppercorns, labeled Tellicherry, in gourmet shops and mail-order catalogs.

Top quality white peppercorns are produced in Borneo and Sumatra. The most desirable ones have a creamy white color. Traditionally packed in a salty brine, green peppercorns are slightly milder than black or white ones. Dried green peppercorns have only recently become available and are so fragile that they can be crushed with your fingers.

Keep peppercorns in a tightly sealed container in a cool, dark place. They'll stay fresh this way for up to 1 year. To coarse crack pepper, if your pepper mill doesn't adjust to make coarse cracked pepper (or if you don't have a pepper mill), place peppercorns in a small, zipper-lock plastic bag. Seal the bag and whack with a heavy skillet or crack with a rolling pin.

Persimmon

A luscious, red-orange tree fruit, persimmons are native to China. There are two main types : the more common, acorn-shaped Hachiya persimmon, which is unpalatably tannic and bitter unless it is very ripe and soft, and the squat, tomato-like Fuyu persimmon, which isn't at all bitter and remains firm when ripe.

Look for deep-orange fruits with no trace of yellow when choosing Hachiya persimmons. If you plan on eating them right away, look for very soft fruits that are almost translucent. If only hard Hachiyas are available, take them home and ripen them for a few days before eating. As for choosing Fuyu persimmons, look for plump fruits with a brilliant orange color. Fuyus should be firm, yet give gently when pressed in your palm.

When storing, keep persimmons at room temperature and eat within a few days. Or freeze very ripe Hachiya persimmons. Cut off the pointed tip of the persimmons first, and wrap the fruit tightly in plastic wrap. It will keep in the freezer for up to 3 months. It's best not to freeze unripened Hachiyas. Freezing will soften the fruit but will not alter its bitter, tannic flavor. Instead, put the fruit in a paper bag with a banana or an apple and leave it at room temperature until the fruit is quite soft, which should be about 3 to 4 days.

To enjoy Hachiya persimmons, eat the soft, ripe fruit with a spoon or puree it and use as a base for puddings, cookies, and cakes. You can also slice the fruit in half, wrap it in a plastic, and freeze the halves for at least 4 hours. Then, dig out the fruit with a spoon, like sherbet. For Fuyu persimmons, slice the fruit like an apple and eat it as a snack or use it in salads.

Poaching - Moist Heat Cooking

This moist-heat cooking method is best for preparing delicate foods such as fish, shell-fish, chicken, eggs, and fruit. Keeping the cooking liquid just below a simmer is the key to gentle, even poaching. The cooking liquid should hover between 160^o and 170^oF. The surface of the water should show some movement and look like it's just about to bubble, without ever reaching a simmer. Keep the food completely submerged in the poaching liquid, but don't cover the pot, which will increase the cooking temperature.

To keep the poached foods submerged in the cooking liquid, press a sheet of parchment paper directly onto the surface of the cooking liquid. And to help lift delicate ingredients, such as fish, from the poaching liquid without damage, wrap the food in a length of cheesecloth long enough to allow some overhang at each end. When the food is finished poaching, use the overhang as handles to lift it from the poaching liquid.

Smaller pieces poach faster than large ones. In many cases, you can just pour boiling water over the food. To poach medium-size shrimp, quartered scallops, 1/4" thick slices of fish, or paper-thin strips of boneless, skinless chicken breast, heat the poaching liquid to boiling. Pour it over the thin or sliced food. Stir once, cover tightly, and set aside for 1 to 2 minutes. Remove poached ingredients with a slotted spoon.

Pots, Pans and Molds

Various materials and combinations of materials are used in the construction of pots, pans and molds. Because form and function are closely related, it is important to choose the proper equipment for the task at hand.

Pots made of copper transfer heat rapidly and evenly; but because direct contact with copper will affect the color and consistency of many foods, copper pots are generally lined. (An exception is the copper pan used to cook jams, jellies and other high-sugar items, often known as preserving pans.) Great care must be taken not to scratch the lining, which is usually a soft metal, such as tin. Copper also tends to discolor quickly, and so it requires significant time and labor for proper upkeep.

Cast iron has the capacity to hold heat well and transmit it very evenly. The metal is somewhat brittle, however, and must be treated carefully to prevent pitting, scarring and rusting. Cast iron is sometimes coated with enamel during manufacturing to simplify care and increase its useful life.

Stainless steel is a moderately good conductor of heat, but is often preferred because it has other advantages, including easy maintenance. Other metals such as aluminum or copper, are often sandwiched within stainless steel to improve heat conduction. Stainless steel will not react with foods and this means, for example, that white sauces will retain a pure white or ivory color.

Blue-steel, black-steel, pressed-steel or rolled-steel pans are all prone to discoloration but transmit heat very rapidly. These pans are generally thin, and are often preferred for sautéing foods because of their quick response to changes in temperature.

Aluminum is also an excellent conductor of heat; however, it is a soft metal that wears down quickly. When a metal spoon or whip is used to stir a white or light-colored sauce, soup or stock in an aluminum pot, it could take on a gray color. Anodized or treated aluminum tends not to react with foods, and it is one of the most popular metals for pots used in contemporary kitchens. The surfaces of treated aluminum pans tend to be easier to clean and care for than most other metals, with the exception of stainless steel.

Nonstick coatings on pans have some use in professional kitchens, especially for those that try to offer foods that are cooked with less fats and oils. These surfaces are not as sturdy as metal or enamel linings, so care must be taken to avoid scratching during cooking and cleaning. New methods of adding nonstick coatings as well as new materials used to create these coatings have produced more durable nonstick pans, suitable in many cooking situations.

The following guidelines should be observed for the choice of a pan or mold :

Choose a size appropriate to the food being cooked.

The chef should be familiar with the capacity of various pots, pans and molds. If too many pieces of meat are crowded into a pan, for instance, the food will not brown properly. If the pan is too large, however, the caramelized drippings from the meat will scorch. If a small fish is poached in a large pot, the cooking liquid will not have the proper flavor intensity. It is also easier to overcook the fish in a too-large pot. If the pot is too small, there may not be enough cuisson available for the sauce.

Choose material appropriate to the cooking technique.

Experience has shown, and science has verified, that certain cooking techniques are more successful when used with certain materials. For instance, sautéed foods require pans that transmit heat quickly and are sensitive to temperature changes. Braises, on the other hand, require long, fairly gentle cooking, and it is more important that the particular pot transmit heat evenly and hold heat well than that it respond rapidly to changes in heat.

Be sure to dry pan before storing.

Air drying is best to prevent the pitting and rusting of some surfaces, as well as to keep them clean and sanitize. Proper and organized storage prevents dents, chips and breakage, and expedites the work load, because you can more readily find what you need.

Poultry Fabrication

All kinds of poultry, including chicken, squab, duck, pheasant and quail, are of great importance to most dishes. Always popular and readily available, poultry, for the most part, is among the least costly of meats used for entrees and other menu items. Throughout this section, the fabrication techniques are demonstrated on a chicken, the bird most commonly used in dishes. These techniques can be applied to the fabrication of virtually all poultry types.

The younger the bird, the easier it is to cut up. They are usually much smaller and their bones are not completely hardened. The size and breed of the bird will also have some bearing on how easy or difficult it will be to fabricate. Chickens are generally far more simple to cut up, for example, than are pheasant. The tendons and ligaments in chickens are less well-developed, except in the case of free-range birds, which move freely about an enclosed yard or pen.

Although the procedure for boning a duck, for instance, is very similar to that used in boning a Cornish game hen, carcass shapes do differ from breed to breed. A duck has shorter legs and a long, barrel-shaped chest. The game hen, since it is small, will require smaller, more delicate cuts than a turkey. A quail, one of the smallest birds, requires all of a chef's skill and care to avoid mangling the tiny morsels of meat that cling to delicate bones.

The bones and trim remaining after fabrication can be used in a variety of ways - the wings used for hors d'oeuvres, any lean trim for forcemeat preparation, and the bones for making stock.

When working with any type of poultry, the chef should keep all tools and work surfaces scrupulously clean because of the potential for cross-contamination. Follow all of the proper procedures for working with potentially hazardous foods. The following standards must be adhered to strictly -

Keep poultry iced and under refrigeration when it is not being fabricated.
Be sure that the cutting board has been thoroughly cleaned and sanitized before and after using it to cut up poultry.
Clean and sanitize knives, poultry shears and the steel before and after cutting poultry.
Store poultry in clean, leak-proof containers, and do not place poultry above any cooked meats. If the poultry drips on the food below it, it will become contaminated. For added safety, it may be a good idea to place a drip pan underneath the container holding the poultry.

The essential tools for cutting up poultry are a clean work surface, a boning knife, and a chef's knife. Some chefs are comfortable using poultry shears to cut through joints and smaller bones. Others may prefer to use a cleaver.

Preparing Pickles

When preserved in vinegar or brine, almost any produce will make crisp, delicious pickles to serve on sandwiches or as a snack. Cucumbers are by far the most popular vegetables for pickling, but there are many others, including beets, cauliflower, onions, watermelon rind, and okra.

When choosing the ingredients, look for fresh, firm produce, Avoid using produce that has been coated with wax; the vinegar won't be able to penetrate the wax barrier. Refrigerating the vegetables before pickling will produce a crisper pickles. Make sure that your vinegar is at least 4 percent to 6 percent acetic acid (most commercial vinegars are). Also, use a mild-tasting vinegar that won't interfere with the flavor of the pickles. Distilled white vinegar, white wine vinegar, and cider vinegar are all great for making pickles.

To keep pickling brine clear, season the pickles with pickling sat, kosher salt, sea salt, or any other salt that doesn't include additives. Avoid standard table salt, which contains additives and will turn a brine cloudy. Also, use only whole spices to season your pickles. Chopped or crushed spices will make the brine cloudy.

To safely process pickles, use sterilized jars, lids, tongs and other canning equipment. Scald the equipment in gently boiling water, then pour the pickles into the hot, scalded jars, leaving 1/4" headspace. Wipe the rims clean, attach the lids, and tightly screw on the caps. Invert the jars for 10 seconds. Place the filled jars back in boiling water to inactivate any spoilage enzymes that may ruin your pickles. The USDA recommends processing at least 10 minutes for pint-size jar and 20 minutes for quart-size jars. Also, let processed jars of pickles cool undisturbed for at least 12 minutes. Avoid touching the bands on the jars after they have been processed, as any tightening can break the seal.

Letting the pickles sealed, processed jars sit for at least 6 weeks before eating will ensure that the pickles had developed full flavor.

Preparing Pies and Tarts

Although pies and tarts are alike in terms of the dough and fillings that are used, there are some differences. Pies are generally double-crusted (having top and bottom crusts) and are baked in a relatively deep pan with sloping sides to accommodate large amounts of filling. Tarts are usually prepared in thin, straight-sided pans, often with removable bottoms. Tarts (and tartlets) most often have a single crust and are not as deep as pies.

Lining a Pie Plate or Tart Mold

The dough should be rolled out in a circle that is large enough to fit into the pan, covering the bottom and sides, with an inch or so of overhang. Brush away all flour from the upper surface, then fold the dough in half, and brush away any excess flour on the bottom. With the dough still folded in half or draped over the rolling pin, transfer the dough to a pan and fit it gently into the pan's corner. Use a ball of scrap dough to press out any air pockets, Trim away the excess dough, At this point, the pie is ready to fill, or you may want to bake the crust "blind".

Baking Blind

The procedure for preparing a pre-baked pie shell is known as baking blind. The dough is prepared, rolled out, and fitted into the pan. The dough is pierced in several places with the tines of a fork (known as docking) to prevent blisters from forming in the dough as it bakes.

The pastry is then covered with parchment paper and an empty pie pan is set on top of the paper (this is known as "double panning"). The pans are placed upside down in the oven. This procedure prevents the dough from shrinking back down the pan's edges and keeps it from blistering. The dough is baked in a moderate oven until it is set, appears dry, and has a light golden color.

Another method is to place a sheet of parchment paper over the dough after docking and then fill it with pie weights or dried beans before baking. Once the shell is baked, it may be coated with melted chocolate or an apricot glaze to prevent the crust from becoming soggy. This also adds additional flavor to the finished pie or tart. Be sure however, that the flavor you introduce is appropriate to the particular food.

Preparing Pudding

A simple custard made with sweetened, cooked milk and eggs, pudding has a creamy consistency that's supremely comforting. When made with rice or bread, it is known as rice pudding or bread pudding. When preparing pudding, remove immediately from the heat and whisk vigorously when it begins to curdle. By whisking vigorously, it will help to work out the clumps. To get a smooth texture with a finished pudding, press it through a fine-mesh sieve. And when a pudding has been burned on the bottom, simply transfer it to a new pan, leaving the burned bottom behind.

To crisp up a soggy crust on bread pudding, sprinkle it with sugar and place it under a broiler to caramelize the sugar. Occasionally, bread pudding can be dried and overcooked. When that happened, pour warm milk or cream over the pudding and warm it in the oven to rescue it. You can also mask the dryness by serving it with ice cream, a generous dollop of whipped cream, a warm fruit sauce, or caramel sauce.

Speeding up the cooling process could be achieved by transferring the pudding from the hot saucepan into a bowl or other container. To cool it even faster, spread pudding in a rimmed baking sheet. The more exposed surface, the quicker it will cool.

You can also flavor rice pudding. Simmer 6 to 8 whole cardamom pods in the milk before making your favorite rice pudding recipe. Remove the pods before serving. Also, choose a short-grain rice, which will create a creamier consistency.

To flavor bread pudding, add thinly sliced apples and dabs of apple butter to your favorite bread pudding. Bake as usual (in a hot water bath is best). You can also replace traditional bread with leftover quick breads such as pancakes, muffins, scones or biscuits.

Preserving Fresh Herbs

The faster the herbs dry, the more flavorful the resulting dried herb will be.

Conventional Oven: Place clean dry herb sprigs on a foil-lined baking sheet. Bake at the lowest setting until herbs are dry and brittle. This should take about 12 hours. Strip leaves from stems & place in small airtight storage containers.

Air Drying: Tie small bunches of herbs with string and hang upside down by the stems in a dry warm spot out of direct sunlight. Be sure air circulates freely around the bunches. Let dry till leaves are brittle. This usually takes a few days to a week, depending on the thickness of the leaves. Pick off the dried leaves & store them in tightly covered containers in a cool, dry place for about two weeks or until dry and brittle.

Microwave Drying: Pick when the dew has just gone off. Put on paper towels on a plate in the microwave. Zap on high for a minute to start (at that point they appear "wet"). Stir them, zap again for another minute, move around again, and zap approximately 30 seconds more or until they are dry and crumbly. Rub between your hands to break up, pick out any twiggy parts and put in small jars or baggies.

Freezing Herbs: Wrap in foil or plastic wrap. You can also chop clean herbs, place in ice cube trays & fill with water. When needed, remove herb ice cubes and drop them into hot cooking liquid. You can also wrap bunches of fresh herbs in foil or plastic wrap and freeze them for several weeks. You should expect some discoloration of frozen herbs. Mark the date on the container of your dried herbs. They can be kept for one year. Heat, moisture and light rob herbs of flavor. You can also make herb butters and herb vinegars.

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